The three-language policy in India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 mandates that all students learn three languages during their school years, with at least two being native Indian languages. The policy is designed to promote multilingualism, national unity, and cognitive development, while respecting the country’s linguistic diversity.
- Flexibility: Unlike previous policies, NEP 2020 does not impose any specific language. States, regions, and even students can choose the three languages, as long as at least two are Indian languages. For example, Tamil Nadu could—in theory—choose Tamil, English, and Sanskrit or another Indian language.
- Foreign Languages: At the secondary level, students can also opt to study foreign languages such as French, German, Spanish, Japanese, or Korean, in addition to Indian languages and English.
- Objective: The aim is to ensure students are proficient in multiple languages, fostering national integration and global competence, without undermining regional identities.
Tamil Nadu’s Opposition to the Three-Language Policy
Tamil Nadu has a deep-rooted history of opposing any perceived imposition of Hindi or central language mandates:
- Historical Context: The state’s resistance dates back to 1937, when the then-Madras government tried to make Hindi compulsory in schools, sparking protests led by the Justice Party and Dravidian leaders. The policy was revoked in 1940, but anti-Hindi sentiment persisted.
- 1965 and 1968 Agitations: In 1965, violent protests erupted against the central government’s plan to make Hindi the sole official language. In 1968, when the three-language formula was first introduced, Tamil Nadu rejected it, instituting a two-language policy of Tamil and English—a policy that continues to this day.
- NEP 2020 Opposition: Tamil Nadu remains the only state that has never implemented the three-language formula. The DMK-led government sees NEP 2020’s language provisions as a covert attempt to impose Hindi and undermine Tamil Nadu’s linguistic autonomy.
- Recent Triggers: In 2025, the central government withheld education funds (under the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan) from Tamil Nadu for refusing to implement NEP 2020’s three-language policy. The DMK government called this “blackmail,” while the Centre insists that states must comply with central education guidelines to receive funding.
- Public Protests: The issue has sparked mass protests in Tamil Nadu and even among the Tamil diaspora abroad. Protesters argue that the policy threatens Tamil identity and amounts to cultural domination by the Hindi-speaking North.
Summary Table of Key Perspectives
| Perspective | Common Arguments/Comments |
| Pro-Hindi (Unification) | Hindi can unite India, most widely spoken, should move past colonial English influences. |
| Anti-Hindi Imposition | Imposition threatens federalism, erodes regional identity, resistance is about autonomy. |
| Distraction from Issues | Language debate diverts attention from critical issues like pollution, jobs, rights, etc. |
| Desire for Unity | Many want to move beyond language/caste/religion to a broader Indian identity. |
Recent Language Wars in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra
The language debate has escalated beyond Tamil Nadu, involving other states:
- Tamil Nadu:
- Protests and Funding Dispute: The state government and civil society have organized large-scale protests against the three-language policy and the withholding of central funds. The DMK and other Dravidian parties have framed this as a battle for Tamil pride and federalism.
- Hashtag Wars: Social media campaigns, such as #StopHindiImposition vs #StopCryingSpeakHindiOn, #StopHindiImposition (defending linguistic diversity and autonomy) and #StopCryingSpeakHindi (advocating for Hindi as a unifying language) have gained traction.
- Protests and Funding Dispute: The state government and civil society have organized large-scale protests against the three-language policy and the withholding of central funds. The DMK and other Dravidian parties have framed this as a battle for Tamil pride and federalism.
- Karnataka:
- Border and Language Tensions: The language row has spilled over into Karnataka, particularly in the border region with Maharashtra (Belagavi). Incidents of violence—such as the assault of a KSRTC bus conductor for not speaking Marathi and retaliatory attacks on Maharashtra buses—have led to the suspension of interstate bus services.
- Kannada Pride: Karnataka has also seen renewed emphasis on Kannada language and culture, with activists and politicians pushing back against any perceived threat to Kannada identity.
- Border and Language Tensions: The language row has spilled over into Karnataka, particularly in the border region with Maharashtra (Belagavi). Incidents of violence—such as the assault of a KSRTC bus conductor for not speaking Marathi and retaliatory attacks on Maharashtra buses—have led to the suspension of interstate bus services.
- Maharashtra:
- Marathi Assertion: In Maharashtra, political leaders like Aditya Thackeray have asserted that Marathi is the language of the state, reacting to remarks by leaders that migrants need not learn Marathi. The state government has reaffirmed its commitment to Marathi education and cultural preservation.
- Compulsory Marathi: Maharashtra has made Marathi compulsory in schools, regardless of medium, and has taken steps to ensure the language’s primacy in public life.
- Marathi Assertion: In Maharashtra, political leaders like Aditya Thackeray have asserted that Marathi is the language of the state, reacting to remarks by leaders that migrants need not learn Marathi. The state government has reaffirmed its commitment to Marathi education and cultural preservation.
Other States Involved in Language Debates
Apart from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, several other states have significant language debates or have been involved in language-related political movements:
- West Bengal:
- Bengali identity and language are central to state politics. There have been periodic tensions regarding the status of Bengali and its protection against perceived Hindi or English dominance.
- Odisha:
- The state has a strong Odia language movement and has taken steps to promote Odia in education and administration.
- Punjab:
- The Punjabi language is a core part of the state’s identity, and there have been movements to protect and promote it, especially in the context of Sikh identity.
- Kerala:
- While less prominent in recent years, Kerala has a history of promoting Malayalam and resisting perceived cultural domination by other languages.
- Assam:
- Assam is actively involved in language policy debates, especially regarding Assamese, Bodo, Bengali, and Manipuri.
- Other Northeastern States:
- States like Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, and Tripura have their own distinct language movements and policies, often linked to tribal and indigenous identities.
Connecting the Story: Why the Language Wars Persist
The language wars in India are not just about education policy but are deeply tied to identity, federalism, and politics:
- Identity and Pride: For states, language is a core marker of cultural identity. Any perceived threat to regional languages is seen as an attack on their heritage and autonomy.
- Federalism vs. Centralization: The central government’s push for uniform education policies is viewed by many states as an overreach, undermining their constitutional right to decide on language and education matters.
- Economic and Social Implications: The withholding of central funds and the politicization of language policy have real consequences for education and development in resisting states.
Conclusion
The three-language policy under NEP 2020 is intended to promote multilingualism and national unity, but its implementation has reignited old language wars, especially in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. These conflicts are rooted in historical grievances, identity politics, and federal tensions.
